However, expected rewards are frequently uncertain. It is often assumed that decisions are mainly driven by the desire to maximize expected reward. Under the assumption of a tight link between noradrenaline (NA) and pupil size under constant illumination, our data may be interpreted as empirical evidence for the hypothesis that NA plays a similar role for uncertainty as dopamine does for reward, namely the encoding of error signals.įrom simple motor tasks to complex financial transactions, decisions are at the core of human behavior. Using this quantification, we find that pupil dilation and risk prediction error are indeed highly correlated. While this general finding is independent of the precise quantification of these decision variables, we then analyze this effect with respect to a specific mathematical model of uncertainty and surprise, namely risk and risk prediction error. We first demonstrate that the pupil does not signal expected reward or uncertainty per se, but instead signals surprise, that is, errors in judging uncertainty. This task dissociates two key decision variables – uncertainty and reward – and their errors from each other and from the act of the decision itself. To test this hypothesis, we measure pupil dilation while observers perform an auditory gambling task. We hypothesize that uncertainty, or more specifically errors in judging uncertainty, are reflected in pupil dilation, a marker that has frequently been associated with decision making, but so far has remained largely elusive to quantitative models. While the neurophysiology of expected rewards is well understood, less is known about the physiology of uncertainty. These expectations are often based on incomplete knowledge and are thus subject to uncertainty. Our decisions are guided by the rewards we expect.
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